Kinesin-13, a Motor Protein, is Regulated by Polo-like Kinase in Giardia lamblia

Kinesin-13 (Kin-13), a depolymerizer of microtubule (MT), has been known to affect the length of Giardia. Giardia Kin-13 (GlKin-13) was localized to axoneme, flagellar tips, and centrosomes, where phosphorylated forms of Giardia polo-like kinase (GlPLK) were distributed. We observed the interaction between GlKin-13 and GlPLK via co-immunoprecipitation using transgenic Giardia cells expressing Myc-tagged GlKin-13, hemagglutinin-tagged GlPLK, and in vitro-synthesized GlKin-13 and GlPLK proteins. In vitro-synthesized GlPLK was demonstrated to auto-phosphorylate and phosphorylate GlKin-13 upon incubation with [γ-32P]ATP. Morpholino-mediated depletion of both GlKin-13 and GlPLK caused an extension of flagella and a decreased volume of median bodies in Giardia trophozoites. Our results suggest that GlPLK plays a pertinent role in formation of flagella and median bodies by modulating MT depolymerizing activity of GlKin-13.

Functional Identification of a Nuclear Localization Signal of MYB2 Protein in Giardia lamblia

MYB2 protein was identified as a transcription factor that showed encystation-induced expression in Giardia lamblia. Although nuclear import is essential for the functioning of a transcription factor, an evident nuclear localization signal (NLS) of G. lamblia MYB2 (GlMYB2) has not been defined. Based on putative GlMYB2 NLSs predicted by 2 programs, a series of plasmids expressing hemagglutinin (HA)-tagged GlMYB2 from the promoter of G. lamblia glutamate dehydrogenase were constructed and transfected into Giardia trophozoites. Immunofluorescence assays using anti-HA antibodies indicated that GlMYB2 amino acid sequence #507–#530 was required for the nuclear localization of GlMYB2, and this sequence was named as NLSGlMYB2. We further verified this finding by demonstrating the nuclear location of a protein obtained by the fusion of NLSGlMYB2 and G. lamblia glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, a non-nuclear protein. Our data on GlMYB2 will expand our understanding on NLSs functioning in G. lamblia.

Functional Identification of a Nuclear Localization Signal of MYB2 Protein in Giardia lamblia

MYB2 protein was identified as a transcription factor that showed encystation-induced expression in Giardia lamblia. Although nuclear import is essential for the functioning of a transcription factor, an evident nuclear localization signal (NLS) of G. lamblia MYB2 (GlMYB2) has not been defined. Based on putative GlMYB2 NLSs predicted by 2 programs, a series of plasmids expressing hemagglutinin (HA)-tagged GlMYB2 from the promoter of G. lamblia glutamate dehydrogenase were constructed and transfected into Giardia trophozoites. Immunofluorescence assays using anti-HA antibodies indicated that GlMYB2 amino acid sequence #507–#530 was required for the nuclear localization of GlMYB2, and this sequence was named as NLSGlMYB2. We further verified this finding by demonstrating the nuclear location of a protein obtained by the fusion of NLSGlMYB2 and G. lamblia glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, a non-nuclear protein. Our data on GlMYB2 will expand our understanding on NLSs functioning in G. lamblia.

Increased Innate Lymphoid Cell 3 and IL-17 Production in Mouse Lamina Propria Stimulated with Giardia lamblia

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are key players during an immune response at the mucosal surfaces, such as lung, skin, and gastrointestinal tract. Giardia lamblia is an extracellular protozoan pathogen that inhabits the human small intestine. In this study, ILCs prepared from the lamina propria of mouse small intestine were incubated with G. lamblia trophozoites. Transcriptional changes in G. lamblia-exposed ILCs resulted in identification of activation of several immune pathways. Secretion of interleukin (IL)-17A, IL-17F, IL-1β, and interferon-γ was increased, whereas levels of IL-13, IL-5, and IL-22, was maintained or reduced upon exposure to G. lamblia. Goup 3 ILC (ILC3) was found to be dominant amongst the ILCs, and increased significantly upon co-cultivation with G. lamblia trophozoites. Oral inoculation of G. lamblia trophozoites into mice resulted in their presence in the small intestine, of which, the highest number of parasites was detected at the 5 days-post infection. Increased ILC3 was observed amongst the ILC population at the 5 days-post infection. These findings indicate that ILC3 from the lamina propria secretes IL-17 in response to G. lamblia, leading to the intestinal pathology observed in giardiasis.

RNA-sequencing Profiles of Cell Cycle–Related Genes Upregulated during the G2-Phase in Giardia lamblia

To identify the component(s) involved in cell cycle control in the protozoan Giardia lamblia, cells arrested at the G1/S- or G2-phase by treatment with nocodazole and aphidicolin were prepared from the synchronized cell cultures. RNA-sequencing analysis of the 2 stages of Giardia cell cycle identified several cell cycle genes that were up-regulated at the G2-phase. Transcriptome analysis of cells in 2 distinct cell cycle stages of G. lamblia confirmed previously reported components of cell cycle (PcnA, cyclin B, and CDK) and identified additional cell cycle components (NEKs, Mad2, spindle pole protein, and CDC14A). This result indicates that the cell cycle machinery operates in this protozoan, one of the earliest diverging eukaryotic lineages.

Production of Inflammatory Cytokines and Nitric Oxide by Human Mast Cells Incubated with Toxoplasma gondii Lysate

The roles of mast cells in allergic diseases and helminth infections are well known. However, the roles of mast cells in T. gondii infection is poorly understood. This study was focused on the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-4), chemokines (CXCL8, MCP-1) and nitric oxide (NO) by mast cells in response to soluble lysate of T. gondii tachyzoites. Production of CXCL8 (IL-8), MCP-1, TNF-α and IL-4 were measured by RT-PCR and ELISA. Western blot were used for detection of CXCR-1 and CXCR2. Our results showed that T. gondii lysates triggered mast cells to release CXCL8, MCP-1, TNF-α, IL-4 and to produce NO. This suggests that mast cells play an important role in inflammatory responses to T. gondii.

Trichomonas vaginalis α-Actinin 2 Modulates Host Immune Responses by Inducing Tolerogenic Dendritic Cells via IL-10 Production from Regulatory T Cells

Trichomonas vaginalis is a pathogen that triggers severe immune responses in hosts. T. vaginalis α-actinin 2, Tvα-actinin 2, has been used to diagnose trichomoniasis. This study was undertaken to examine the role of Tvα-actinin 2 as an antigenic molecule to induce immune responses from humans. Western blot analysis using anti-Tvα-actinin 2 antibodies indicated its presence in the secreted proteins of T. vaginalis. ELISA was employed to measure cytokine production by vaginal epithelial cells, prostate cells, mouse dendritic cells (DCs), or T cells stimulated with T. vaginalis or Tvα-actinin 2 protein. Both T. vaginalis and rTvα-actinin 2 induced cytokine production from epithelial cell lines, including IL-10. Moreover, CD4+CD25− regulatory T cells (Treg cells) incubated with rTvα-actinin 2-treated DCs produced high levels of IL-10. These data indicate that Tvα-actinin 2 modulates immune responses via IL-10 production by Treg cells.

Interaction between Trichomonas vaginalis and the Prostate Epithelium

Most men infected with Trichomonas vaginalis are asymptomatic and can remain undiagnosed and untreated. This has been hypothesized to result in chronic persistent prostatic infection. Adhesion of the protozoan organisms to mucosal cells is considered a first and prerequisite step for T. vaginalis infection. Adhesion of T. vaginalis to prostate epithelial cells has not yet been observed; however, there are several reports about inflammation of prostate epithelial cells induced by T. vaginalis. The aim of this study was to investigate whether adhesion and cytotoxicity of T. vaginalis are involved in inflammation of prostate epithelial cells. When RWPE-1 cells were infected with T. vaginalis (1:0.4 or 1:4), adhesion of T. vaginalis continuously increased for 24 hr or 3 hr, respectively. The cytotoxicity of prostate epithelial cells infected with T. vaginalis (RWPE-1: T. vaginalis=1:0.4) increased at 9 hr; at an infection ratio of 1:4, cytotoxicity increased after 3 hr. When the RWPE-1 to T. vaginalis ratio was 1:0.4 or 1:4, production of IL-1β, IL-6, CCL2, and CXCL8 also increased. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) was verified by measuring decreased E-cadherin and increased vimentin expression at 24 hr and 48 hr. Taken together, the results indicate that T. vaginalis adhered to prostate epithelial cells, causing cytotoxicity, pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and EMT. Our findings suggest for the first time that T. vaginalis may induce inflammation via adhesion to normal prostate epithelial cells.

From Bench to Market: Preparing Human Pluripotent Stem Cells Derived Cardiomyocytes for Various Applications

Human cardiomyocytes (CMs) cease to proliferate and remain terminally differentiated thereafter, when humans reach the mid-20s. Thus, any damages sustained by myocardium tissue are irreversible, and they require medical interventions to regain functionality. To date, new surgical procedures and drugs have been developed, albeit with limited success, to treat various heart diseases including myocardial infarction. Hence, there is a pressing need to develop more effective treatment methods to address the increasing mortality rate of the heart diseases. Functional CMs are not only an important in vitro cellular tool to model various types of heart diseases for drug development, but they are also a promising therapeutic agent for cell therapy. However, the limited proliferative capacity entails difficulties in acquiring functional CMs in the scale that is required for pathological studies and cell therapy development. Stem cells, human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) in particular, have been considered as an unlimited cellular source for providing functional CMs for various applications. Notable progress has already been made: the first clinical trials of hPSCs derived CMs (hPSC-CMs) for treating myocardial infarction was approved in 2015, and their potential use in disease modeling and drug discovery is being fully explored. This concise review gives an account of current development of differentiation, purification and maturation techniques for hPSC-CMs, and their application in cell therapy development and pharmaceutical industries will be discussed with the latest experimental evidence.

Identification of a Novel Microtubule-Binding Protein in Giardia lamblia

Giardia lamblia is a protozoan that causes diarrheal diseases in humans. Cytoskeletal structures of Giardia trophozoites must be finely reorganized during cell division. To identify Giardia proteins which interact with microtubules (MTs), Giardia lysates were incubated with in vitro-polymerized MTs and then precipitated by ultracentifugation. A hypothetical protein (GL50803_8405) was identified in the precipitated fraction with polymerized MTs and was named GlMBP1 (G. lamblia microtubule-binding protein 1). Interaction of GlMBP1 with MTs was confirmed by MT binding assays using recombinant GlMBP1 (rGlMBP1). In vivo expression of GlMBP1 was shown by a real-time PCR and western blot analysis using anti-rGlMBP1 antibodies. Transgenic G. lamblia trophozoites were constructed by integrating a chimeric gene encoding hemagglutinin (HA)-tagged GlMBP1 into a Giardia chromosome. Immunofluorescence assays of this transgenic G. lamblia, using anti-HA antibodies, revealed that GlMBP1 mainly localized at the basal bodies, axonemes, and median bodies of G. lamblia trophozoites. This result indicates that GlMBP1 is a component of the G. lamblia cytoskeleton.

Identification of Antigenic Proteins in Trichomonas vaginalis

Trichomoniasis is a sexually transmitted disease due to infection with Trichomonas vaginalis, and it can cause serious consequences for women's health. To study the virulence factors of this pathogen, T. vaginalis surface proteins were investigated using polyclonal antibodies specific to the membrane fractions of T. vaginalis. The T. vaginalis expression library was constructed by cloning the cDNA derived from mRNA of T. vaginalis into a phage lambda Uni-ZAP XR vector, and then used for immunoscreening with the anti-membrane proteins of T. vaginalis antibodies. The immunoreactive proteins identified included adhesion protein AP65-1, alpha-actinin, kinesin-associated protein, teneurin, and 2 independent hypothetical proteins. Immunofluorescence assays showed that AP65-1, one of the identified immunogenic clones, is prevalent in the whole body of T. vaginalis. This study led us to identify T. vaginalis proteins which may stimulate immune responses by human cells.

NF-kappaB and CREB Are Involved in IL-8 Production of Human Neutrophils Induced by Trichomonas vaginalis-Derived Secretory Products

Trichomonas vaginalis is a flagellated lumen-dwelling extracellular protozoan parasite that causes human trichomoniasis via sexual intercourse. Human neutrophils play a crucial role in acute tissue inflammatory responses in T. vaginalis infection. In this study, we investigated the signaling mechanism of neutrophil responses when stimulated with T. vaginalis-derived secretory products (TvSP), which were collected from 1x10(7) live trichomonads. Incubation of human neutrophils isolated from peripheral blood with TvSP induced up-regulation of IL-8 protein secretion. In addition, stimulation with TvSP induced phosphorylation of NF-kappaB and CREB in neutrophils. Moreover, TvSP-induced IL-8 production was also significantly inhibited by pretreatment of neutrophils with ikappaB inhibitor or CREB inhibitor. These results suggest that transcription factors NF-kappaB and CREB are involved in IL-8 production in human neutrophils induced by stimulation with T. vaginalis infection.

Evaluation of alpha-Tubulin as an Antigenic and Molecular Probe to Detect Giardia lamblia

The alpha/beta-tubulin heterodimer is the basic subunit of microtubules in eukaryotes. Polyclonal antibodies specific to recombinant alpha-tubulin of Giardia lamblia were made, and found effective as a probe to specifically detect G. lamblia by immunofluorescence assays. Nucleotide sequences of alpha-tubulin genes were compared between G. lamblia WB and GS strains, prototypes of assemblage A and assemblage B, respectively. A set of primers was designed and used to amplify a portion of the alpha-tubulin gene from G. lamblia. PCR-RFLP analysis of this alpha-tubulin PCR product successfully differentiated G. lamblia into 2 distinct groups, assemblages A and B. The results indicate that alpha-tubulin can be used as a molecular probe to detect G. lamblia.

Potential role of HMG CoA reductase inhibitor on oxidative stress induced by advanced glycation endproducts in vascular smooth muscle cells of diabetic vasculopathy

Advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs)-induced vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMCs) proliferation and formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are emerging as one of the important mechanisms of diabetic vasculopathy but little is known about the antioxidative action of HMG CoA reductase inhibitor (statin) on AGEs. We hypothesized that statin might reduce AGEs-induced intracellular ROS of VSMCs and analyzed the possible mechanism of action of statin in AGEs-induced cellular signaling. Aortic smooth muscle cell of Sprague-Dawley rat (RASMC) culture was done using the different levels of AGEs stimulation in the presence or absence of statin. The proliferation of RASMC, ROS formation and cellular signaling was evaluated and neointimal formation after balloon injury in diabetic rats was analyzed. Increasing concentration of AGEs stimulation was associated with increased RASMC proliferation and increased ROS formation and they were decreased with statin in a dose-dependent manner. Increased NF-kappaB p65, phosphorylated ERK, phosphorylated p38 MAPK, cyclooxygenase-2, and c-jun by AGEs stimulation were noted and their expression was inhibited by statin. Neointimal formation after balloon injury was much thicker in diabetic rats than the sham-treated group but less neointimal growth was observed in those treated with statin after balloon injury. Increased ROS formation, subsequent activation of MAPK system and increased VSMC proliferation may be possible mechanisms of diabetic vasculopathy induced by AGEs and statin may play a key role in the treatment of AGEs-induced diabetic atherosclerosis.

Proinflammatory Cytokine and Nitric Oxide Production by Human Macrophages Stimulated with Trichomonas vaginalis

Trichomonas vaginalis commonly causes vaginitis and perhaps cervicitis in women and urethritis in men and women. Macrophages are important immune cells in response to T. vaginalis infection. In this study, we investigated whether human macrophages could be involved in inflammation induced by T. vaginalis. Human monocyte-derived macrophages (HMDM) were co-cultured with T. vaginalis. Live, opsonized-live trichomonads, and T. vaginalis lysates increased proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, and IL-6 by HMDM. The involvement of nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB signaling pathway in cytokine production induced by T. vaginalis was confirmed by phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65 NF-kappaB. In addition, stimulation with live T. vaginalis induced marked augmentation of nitric oxide (NO) production and expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) levels in HMDM. However, trichomonad-induced NF-kappaB activation and TNF-alpha production in macrophages were significantly inhibited by inhibition of iNOS levels with L-NMMA (NO synthase inhibitor). Moreover, pretreatment with NF-kappaB inhibitors (PDTC or Bay11-7082) caused human macrophages to produce less TNF-alpha. These results suggest that T. vaginalis stimulates human macrophages to produce proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-alpha, and NO. In particular, we showed that T. vaginalis induced TNF-alpha production in macrophages through NO-dependent activation of NF-kappaB, which might be closely involved in inflammation caused by T. vaginalis.

Proinflammatory Cytokine and Nitric Oxide Production by Human Macrophages Stimulated with Trichomonas vaginalis

Trichomonas vaginalis commonly causes vaginitis and perhaps cervicitis in women and urethritis in men and women. Macrophages are important immune cells in response to T. vaginalis infection. In this study, we investigated whether human macrophages could be involved in inflammation induced by T. vaginalis. Human monocyte-derived macrophages (HMDM) were co-cultured with T. vaginalis. Live, opsonized-live trichomonads, and T. vaginalis lysates increased proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, and IL-6 by HMDM. The involvement of nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB signaling pathway in cytokine production induced by T. vaginalis was confirmed by phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65 NF-kappaB. In addition, stimulation with live T. vaginalis induced marked augmentation of nitric oxide (NO) production and expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) levels in HMDM. However, trichomonad-induced NF-kappaB activation and TNF-alpha production in macrophages were significantly inhibited by inhibition of iNOS levels with L-NMMA (NO synthase inhibitor). Moreover, pretreatment with NF-kappaB inhibitors (PDTC or Bay11-7082) caused human macrophages to produce less TNF-alpha. These results suggest that T. vaginalis stimulates human macrophages to produce proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-alpha, and NO. In particular, we showed that T. vaginalis induced TNF-alpha production in macrophages through NO-dependent activation of NF-kappaB, which might be closely involved in inflammation caused by T. vaginalis.

Effect of Iron on Adherence and Cytotoxicity of Entamoeba histolytica to CHO Cell Monolayers

Iron is an essential element for almost all living organisms. The possible role of iron for growth, adherence and cytotoxicity of Entamoeba histolytica was evaluated in this study. The absence of iron from TYI-S-33 medium stopped amebic growth in vitro. However, iron concentrations in the culture media of 21.4-285.6 microM did not affect the growth of the amebae. Although growth was not retarded at these concentrations, the adhesive abilities of E. histolytica and their cytotoxicities to CHO cell monolayer were correlated with iron concentration. Amebic adhesion to CHO cell monolayers was significantly reduced by low-iron (24.6 +/- 2.1%) compared with 62.7 +/- 2.8 and 63.1 +/- 1.4% of amebae grown in a normal-iron and high-iron media, respectively. E. histolytica cultured in the normal- and high-iron media destroyed 69.1 +/- 4.3% and 72.6 +/- 5.7% of cultured CHO cell monolayers, but amebae grown in the low-iron medium showed a significantly reduced level of cytotoxicity to CHO cells (2.8 +/- 0.2%). Addition of divalent cations other than iron to amebic trophozoites grown in the low-iron medium failed to restore levels of the cytotoxicity. However, when E. histolytica grown in low-iron medium were transferred to normal-iron medium, the amebae showed completely restored cytotoxicity within 7 days. The result suggests that iron is an important factor in the adherence and cytotoxicity of E. histolytica to CHO cell monolayer.

Effect of Iron on Adherence and Cytotoxicity of Entamoeba histolytica to CHO Cell Monolayers

Iron is an essential element for almost all living organisms. The possible role of iron for growth, adherence and cytotoxicity of Entamoeba histolytica was evaluated in this study. The absence of iron from TYI-S-33 medium stopped amebic growth in vitro. However, iron concentrations in the culture media of 21.4-285.6 microM did not affect the growth of the amebae. Although growth was not retarded at these concentrations, the adhesive abilities of E. histolytica and their cytotoxicities to CHO cell monolayer were correlated with iron concentration. Amebic adhesion to CHO cell monolayers was significantly reduced by low-iron (24.6 +/- 2.1%) compared with 62.7 +/- 2.8 and 63.1 +/- 1.4% of amebae grown in a normal-iron and high-iron media, respectively. E. histolytica cultured in the normal- and high-iron media destroyed 69.1 +/- 4.3% and 72.6 +/- 5.7% of cultured CHO cell monolayers, but amebae grown in the low-iron medium showed a significantly reduced level of cytotoxicity to CHO cells (2.8 +/- 0.2%). Addition of divalent cations other than iron to amebic trophozoites grown in the low-iron medium failed to restore levels of the cytotoxicity. However, when E. histolytica grown in low-iron medium were transferred to normal-iron medium, the amebae showed completely restored cytotoxicity within 7 days. The result suggests that iron is an important factor in the adherence and cytotoxicity of E. histolytica to CHO cell monolayer.

Detection and genotyping of Giardia intestinalis isolates using intergenic spacers(IGS)-based PCR

Giardia intestinalis infections arise primarily from contaminated food or water. Zoonotic transmission is possible, and at least 7 major assemblages including 2 assemblages recovered from humans have been identified. The determination of the genotype of G. intestinalis is useful not only for assessing the correlation of clinical symptoms and genotypes, but also for finding the infection route and its causative agent in epidemiological studies. In this study, methods to identify the genotypes more specifically than the known 2 genotypes recovered from humans have been developed using the intergenic spacer (IGS) region of rDNA. The IGS region contains varying sequences and is thus suitable for comparing isolates once they are classified as the same strain. Genomic DNA was extracted from cysts isolated from the feces of 5 Chinese, 2 Laotians and 2 Koreans infected with G. intestinalis and the trophozoites of WB, K1, and GS strains cultured in the laboratory, respectively. The rDNA containing the IGS region was amplified by PCR and cloned. The nucleotide sequence of the 3' end of IGS region was determined and examined by multiple alignment and phylogenetic analysis. Based on the nucleotide sequence of the IGS region, 13 G. intestinalis isolates were classified to assemblages A and B, and assemblage A was subdivided into A1 and A2. Then, the primers specific to each assemblage were designed, and PCR was performed using those primers. It detected as little as 10 pg of DNA, and the PCR amplified products with the specific length to each assemblage (A1, 176 bp; A2, 261 bp; B, 319 bp) were found. The PCR specific to 3 assemblages of G. intestinalis did not react with other bacteria or protozoans, and it did not react with G. intestinalis isolates obtained from dogs and rats. It was thus confirmed that by applying this PCR method amplifying the IGS region, the detection of G. intestinalis and its genotyping can be determined simultaneously.

Hydrogenosomal activity of Trichomonas vaginalis cultivated under different iron conditions

To evaluate whether iron concentration in TYM medium influence on hydrogenosomal enzyme gene expression and hydrogenosomal membrane potential of Trichomonas vaginalis, trophozoites were cultivated in irondepleted, normal and iron-supplemented TYM media. The mRNA of hydrogenosomal enzymes, such as pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR), hydrogenase, ferredoxin and malic enzyme, was increased with iron concentrations in T. vaginalis culture media, measured by RT-PCR. Hydrogenosomal membrane potentials measured with DiOC6 also showed similar tendency, e.g. T. vaginalis cultivated in iron-depleted and iron-supplemented media for 3 days showed a significantly reduced and enhanced hydrogenosomal membrane potential compared with that of normal TYM media, respectively. Therefore, it is suggested that iron may regulate hydrogenosomal activity through hydrogenosomal enzyme expression and hydrogenosomal membrane potential.